“Let there be no mistake about my conception of Swaraj. It is complete independence of alien control and complete economic independence. So at one end you have political independence, at the other the economic. It has two other ends. One of them is moral and social, the corresponding end is Dharma, i.e. religion in the highest sense of the term. It includes Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, etc., but is superior to them all….Let us call this the square of Swaraj, which will be out of shape if any of its angles is untrue..”
– MK Gandhi [CITATION MKG37 \l 16393]
The idea of ‘Swaraj’ remains central to the life and works of Mahatma Gandhi. Beginning from his seminal work ‘Hind Swaraj’ in 1909, the idea of Swaraj takes centre stage in the later development of Gandhi’s thought and ideas. Over the years, there have been varied and multiple interpretations and readings of Gandhi. The often varied and even contradictory reading of Gandhi should not cause any surprises simply due to the vastness of his own writings (100+ volumes). When reading Gandhi, one should also be cognizant of the evolution that has happened in his thinking over the decades, a fact he freely acknowledges. He calls on us to go by his later opinion when met with an inconsistency on any given subject. When asked about the consistency of opinions in 1933, Gandhi responded that in his pursuit of ‘truth,’ he has discarded many ideas and learnt new things. His inward growth does not cease until the dissolution of the flesh [CITATION MKG33 \l 16393].
Does this evolution signify a complete discarding of previously held ideas? Or does it point towards a growth and shift within a larger framework that develops since the publication of ‘Hind Swaraj’? The latter seems to be the case when one delves into the development of Gandhi’s thought, especially regarding Swaraj. Even during Gandhi’s lifetime, several leaders, including Nehru, had severe reservations regarding the ideas expressed in Hind Swaraj, even as they integrated specific Gandhian arguments on Swaraj in their political ideology. However, even in 1945, Gandhi, in his letter written to Nehru, claimed to stand by the basic views of Hind Swaraj. It should also be noted that the idea of Gandhi’s Swaraj should not and cannot be reduced to ‘Hind Swaraj’ alone. This article tries to analyze Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj as a framework that can be reinterpreted for the 21st-century problems facing our society and economy.
Defining Swaraj
Before one can start analyzing the various aspects of Swaraj in terms of politics, economy, and society, it is necessary to define the term itself. The word ‘Swaraj’ literally translates as ‘self-rule.’ The word ‘Swarajya’ has a long history in India, including the early days of the nationalist movement. It was later picked up and expanded in meaning and philosophy by Mohandas K Gandhi. In defining the word, Gandhi himself terms it as ‘sacred’ and ‘Vedic’ [CITATION MKG31 \l 16393].
In his works, Gandhi uses ‘Swaraj’ as a complete ideological worldview representing his vision for politics, society, economy, and human life. Both western and eastern streams of thought influenced the development of this idea. Among the most prominent influences include the Upanishads, Ruskin, Tolstoy, Gita, and Jain philosophies. In Gandhi, one finds the meeting of internal self-rule as expressed by eastern philosophies and political independence as conceptualized by the west. While commenting on the same, scholar Anthony J Parel terms Swaraj as the link that Gandhi constructs between the modern ideal of independence and the ancient ideal of self-rule [CITATION Ant02 \l 16393]. It is also fascinating to note how Gandhi rejects the then-dominant notion that spiritual self-rule had to be divorced from the social-political activities of the material world. On the contrary, he affirms that internal freedom leads to one struggling for political and social freedom in the world, and external freedom remains incomplete without internal self-rule [CITATION Mah68 \l 16393]. In doing so, he not only changes the dominant traditional idea of inner freedom but also breaks down the internal-external divide, a dominant idea of western enlightenment. From Hind Swaraj, Gandhi is critical of the modern industrial world, which he calls ‘western civilization.’ In true Swaraj, Gandhi tries to identify an alternative to the worldview conceptualized by the west. Some of the recent scholarship has tried to identify a radical Gandhi in his early writing who identifies and critiques alienation that remains at the heart of the modern world in the west [CITATION Ake12 \l 16393].
Political theory and Swaraj
‘Swaraj is a state of Being of Individuals and Nations’
– MK Gandhi [CITATION MKG \n \l 16393]
The anti-imperialist struggle for National Independence was indeed at the heart of ‘Swaraj.’ However, for Gandhi, Swaraj did not merely mean independence from rule by the British; rather, it had to become genuine self-rule. In Hind Swaraj, Gandhi questions the idea of making India English without the English rulers; he comments that it wouldn’t be ‘Hindustan’ but rather merely ‘Englistan’ [CITATION MKG09 \l 16393]. As a strong skeptic of a large state, Gandhi described political Swaraj in terms of the power to resist authority and, throughout his works, argued for decentralized systems of governance.
Gandhi’s engagement with modern liberal political theory needs close examination. Concerning the question of political rights, Gandhi shows no doubts regarding their importance. His emphasis on duties over rights should not be misjudged as a neglect of political rights. While it is indeed true that on more than one occasion, he emphasizes duties as a prerequisite for rights, it comes from a more profound philosophical difference rather than an undermining of rights. The idea of ‘Satyagraha’ remains central to Gandhian thought; at the very heart of this concept is a defense of ‘rights.’ Writing in 1909, Gandhi defined Satyagraha as, “A method of securing rights by personal suffering; it is reverence of resistance without arms” [CITATION MKG09 \l 16393]. Gandhi’s unique contribution to modern political theory is in the idea of Satyagraha, where the defense of rights was made accessible to anyone and everyone without a necessity for violence. Therefore, Satyagraha serves as both a means and protection of the natural rights of human beings. The ideal of Ahimsa or non-violence remained central to the concept of Satyagraha. It should not be misrepresented as pacifism since Satyagraha includes active resistance and defense of one’s truth. One should also remember that Gandhi was a key figure along with Nehru in the drafting of the ‘Resolution of fundamental rights and economics changes’ in the 1931 Congress session [CITATION JNe36 \l 16393][CITATION Ant02 \l 16393].
If Gandhi found rights to be extremely important, why did he keep emphasizing duties? To find the answer, it is necessary to understand his fundamental disagreement regarding ‘human nature’ as defined by western political thought. In his writings, Gandhi rebels directly and, at times, indirectly against the idea of a self-interested, separate, atomized individual. In the liberal political theory, this individual is assigned rights to protect their self-interest. In Gandhi’s view, human beings are interdependent and social beings. He writes, “Man is not born in isolation, but is essentially a social animal Independent and interdependent.”[CITATION MKG09 \l 16393] The viewpoint of interdependence motivates Gandhi in his constant emphasis on duties. Similarly, he believes this interdependence is only experientially understood in smaller systems, whereby his emphasis on small-scale decentralized villages should be read in connection with this philosophical background. In his works, one can decipher an indirect critique of atomized individualism in the industrial capitalist society. Therefore, scholarship from Akeel Bilgrami, for example, views Gandhi and Marx as intellectual partners in a quest for unalienated life. One of the primary concerns Gandhi has regarding western civilization is how it has turned human subjects into mere objects [CITATION Ake12 \l 16393]. One reason why Gandhi emphasizes localized production and governance is for the revival of that social human being and subjectivity associated with the same.
Sarvodaya: The Economics of Swaraj
The economic aspect of Swaraj is directly connected to Gandhi’s philosophical and ontological viewpoints. In his definition of human beings as social and interdependent, Gandhi stays far from the belief in a liberal self-interested economic man. In a radical statement, Gandhi rejects absolute rights to private property. Gandhi cites the famous opening verse of the Ishavasya Upanishad as his reason for rejecting the absolute right to private property. The verse reads,
īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yatkiñca jagatyāṃ jagat |
tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gṛdhaḥ kasya sviddhanam ||
All this—whatsoever moveth on the earth—should be covered by the Lord.
That renounced, enjoy. Covet not anybody’s wealth” [CITATION SSi \l 16393]
Therefore, Gandhi argues that property and wealth should be held only as trustees, and not as owners of the same. In his viewpoint, the property can be held privately only for the whole community’s benefit. Gandhi presents Swaraj’s economics primarily as ‘Sarvodaya,’ or the development of all. This concept is heavily influenced by the ideas of John Ruskin and his work Unto This Last [CITATION Ant02 \l 16393]. In this close connection with Ruskin and later Tolstoy, one can see Gandhi joining a long-running tradition within the west that has been critical of western society’s path since the late enlightenment/industrialization period. Gandhi argued for production by the masses rather than mass production. In his popularisation of the spinning wheel, Gandhi presented it as a metaphor for his economy- sustainable, mass-employing, simple machinery. Over the years, many have reduced Gandhi’s position to being merely anti-machinery, erasing away a more nuanced argument. Once asked about his opinion on machines, Gandhi responded, “ Machine Power can make a valuable contribution toward economic progress, but those who have control of machinery tend not to pay adequate attention to the freedom of the common man” [CITATION MKG1 \l 16393]. In his critique of machinery, Gandhi was also heavily influenced by Ruskin and Tolstoy, especially their arguments on the work of the soul and the importance of body labour.
“The Swaraj of my dream is the poor man’s Swaraj. The necessaries of life should be enjoyed by you in common with those enjoyed by the princes and the moneyed men. But that does not mean that they should have palaces like theirs. They are not necessary for happiness. You or I would be lost in them. But you ought to get all the ordinary amenities of life that a rich man enjoys. I have not the slightest doubt that Swaraj is not Poorna Swaraj until these amenities are guaranteed to you under it.” -MK Gandhi [CITATION MKG311 \l 16393]
Gandhi is among the earliest ecological thinkers of the modern era. He shows deep concern regarding the modern view of nature as something to be controlled and separate from human existence. He rebels against the viewing of nature as natural resources. [CITATION Ake12 \l 16393] For Gandhi, nature remains sacred and deeply connected to all life, including humans. His emphasis on natural medicine, and forest conservation, should be viewed within this understanding of existence. The works of JC Kumarappa on Gandhian economics emphasise heavily on ecological and economic practices. The idea of a permanent economy is an open rebellion against the prevalent economic order of the time. It calls for an economy that is well within the limits of nature [CITATION JCK \l 16393].
It should be noted that Gandhi, in all his works, shows zero tolerance for poverty. His personal life of voluntary poverty has often been misinterpreted as an acceptance of poverty itself. On the contrary, his voluntary acceptance of poverty was a penance in protest against the involuntary poverty of the Indian people [CITATION Ant02 \l 16393].
Swaraj of the Self
Gandhi defined self-rule at the individual level as removing internal obstacles to freedom. It is from ancient philosophical ideas that Gandhi frames his idea of internal freedom or self-rule. However, for Gandhi, the internal quest for freedom was not separate from the external and vice-versa. As discussed earlier, in this unique mixture of eastern and western thought, Gandhi also moves away from the internal-external divide of enlightenment. One of Gandhi’s fundamental critiques of modernity (western civilization, in his words) is its irreligiosity [CITATION MKG09 \l 16393]. However, in religion, Gandhi refers to Dharma as an underlying essence of all religions as we understand them sociologically. The Dharma that Gandhi defines is heavily influenced by his ideas of Advaitic oneness, Jaina philosophy, and Tolstoy’s reading of Christ.
In drawing from the Yogic tradition of Patanjali, Gandhi lists five virtues necessary for genuine self-rule: nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and greedlessness. Now, Gandhi adds six more, which shows his unique way of connecting inner and outer freedoms. He adds swadeshi, removal of untouchability, bodily labour, control of palate, fearlessness, and respect for all religions [CITATION Ant02 \l 16393]. In Gandhi’s argument, freedoms without self-rule or inner swaraj can create havoc due to its inherent lack of moral fabric. On the other side, he argues that inner freedom forces one to strive to achieve outer freedoms in society. Therefore, he strongly disagrees with the idea of spiritual isolationism since, for him, the ‘other’ was a means to know himself, social action being the path and expression of inner freedom and liberation.
Conclusion: The Framework of Swaraj
In Gandhi, one does not find a philosopher with a clearly defined philosophy but rather a thinker who constantly experimented in practical life, evolving at each step and responding to his circumstances. This statement is not understood as a lack of underlying framework in Gandhi’s thinking. One can decode a clear philosophical and ontological framework from which Gandhi curates his arguments. His openness to changing opinions based on the truth being constantly revealed comes from his early interaction with Jain scholarship and the idea of Anekantavada, i.e., truth having multiple aspects [CITATION WMA17 \l 16393].
Gandhi engages strongly with questions of modernity, religion, ethics, and society. His practical solutions are often covered with his own religious and social conditioning and contextual circumstances. However, the framework of Swaraj that Gandhi curates stands relevant beyond the limited applicability that was implemented in his lifetime. As discussed earlier, the breaking down of the internal-external divide, the aspect of inner freedom as a necessity for the completion of freedom, the interdependent nature of human beings, nature-human relation, economics within natural limits, etc., needs further investigation and reinterpretation for today’s times. The search for Swaraj has been interpreted as a search for unalienated life [CITATION Ake12 \l 16393], it has been seen as a unique blend of western and eastern ideas of freedom [CITATION Ant02 \l 16393], some have seen it as critical traditionalism, while some have seen it as a call for mere traditional living. However, amidst all the multiple interpretations, for Gandhi, it was all experiments with the truth and searching for the same.
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